#5 What Is Old Church Slavonic?

When you begin studying the history of Russian, you may come across the term Old Church Slavonic. However, you may wonder how it differs from Old East Slavic and what relationship it has with modern Russian.

When I first began studying Russian, I also confused Old Church Slavonic with Old East Slavic. Although the two languages are closely related, they developed in different historical contexts and served different purposes.

Old Church Slavonic developed as the earliest literary language of the Slavic world and had a profound influence on many later Slavic languages, including Russian. Understanding its role is also important if you want to gain a deeper knowledge of modern Russian vocabulary, religious terminology, and literary style.

In this article, I will introduce the main characteristics of Old Church Slavonic, explain how it developed, and examine its relationship with Russian.

Characteristics of Old Church Slavonic

Old Church Slavonic is the earliest surviving literary language of the Slavic world, and it was developed in the 9th century.

The language was standardized for the purpose of translating the Christian scriptures and liturgical texts into a Slavic language. For this reason, it developed primarily as a written language used in religion, scholarship, and literature rather than as a language widely spoken in everyday life.

Old Church Slavonic was based on a South Slavic dialect spoken at the time. This dialect was adapted into a literary language suitable for biblical translation and missionary work, after which it came to be used throughout much of the Slavic world.

In Europe at that time, Christian liturgies were mainly conducted in Latin or Greek. However, these languages were difficult for many Slavic people to understand. Old Church Slavonic therefore played an important role by allowing them to read the scriptures and participate in religious services in a language closer to their own.

Old Church Slavonic is not the same language as modern Russian. Nevertheless, it had a major influence on the vocabulary and literary styles of many Slavic languages, including Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian.

Old Church Slavonic can be compared in some respects to Latin in Europe. Just as Latin became a shared language of religion and scholarship in Western Europe, Old Church Slavonic served as an important common language of religion, literature, and education in the Slavic world.

For this reason, Old Church Slavonic is not simply an “old language.” It is a historically important language that is essential for understanding the development of modern Russian and Slavic culture.

Developed Through the Work of Cyril and Methodius

Two missionaries played a central role in the development of Old Church Slavonic: the brothers Cyril and Methodius.

In the 9th century, the Byzantine Empire sent missionaries to Great Moravia, a region located in what is now Central Europe. Slavic peoples lived in this region, but Christian liturgies were mainly conducted in Latin or Greek, making them difficult for many people to understand.

Cyril and Methodius were therefore given the important task of translating the scriptures and liturgical texts into a Slavic language so that local people could learn about Christianity in their own language.

To accomplish this, however, they first needed a writing system capable of representing Slavic sounds. Cyril is traditionally credited with devising the Glagolitic alphabet, which was designed to represent those sounds accurately. The scriptures and liturgical texts were translated using this alphabet, and the language employed in these translations later became known as Old Church Slavonic.

Their missionary work influenced not only Great Moravia but also the later cultural development of Bulgaria, Serbia, Kievan Rus’, and other Slavic regions. The translation tradition they established helped spread literacy and literature across the Slavic world and contributed to the later development of many Slavic languages, including Russian.

The Glagolitic Alphabet Was Used

Russian is written in the Cyrillic alphabet today, but the first writing system created for Old Church Slavonic was the Glagolitic alphabet.

The Glagolitic alphabet is generally believed to have been devised by Cyril in the 9th century. It was designed to represent the sounds of Slavic speech accurately. Its distinctive characters differed considerably from both Greek and Latin letters, and it included symbols suited to sounds characteristic of Slavic languages.

The Cyrillic alphabet later developed within the cultural sphere of the First Bulgarian Empire and was largely based on Greek script. Additional letters were introduced to represent sounds specific to Slavic languages. Because Cyrillic was easier to write and more practical than Glagolitic, it gradually became more widespread.

From the 10th century onward, Cyrillic became established as the standard script for religious and administrative documents in Orthodox Christian regions such as Bulgaria, Serbia, and Kievan Rus’. As a result, the use of the Glagolitic alphabet gradually declined, and it was replaced by Cyrillic in many regions.

A Language That Developed Primarily in Written Form

Old Church Slavonic was based on a dialect spoken in the South Slavic region around the 9th century. In practice, however, it was standardized as a literary language for translating the scriptures and liturgical texts and for use in religion, education, and literature.

For this reason, the language people used in everyday settings such as homes and marketplaces was not necessarily the same as the language used in churches and monasteries.

In Kievan Rus’, for example, people spoke an East Slavic language now known as Old East Slavic in their daily lives. In churches, however, liturgies were conducted in Old Church Slavonic, and religious books and manuscripts were also written in this language.

This relationship was similar to that between Latin and the spoken vernaculars of medieval Europe. Most Europeans at that time did not speak Latin in their daily lives, but Latin continued to be used in churches and universities for centuries. In the same way, Old Church Slavonic played an important role as a shared language of religion and scholarship in the Slavic world.

The Difference Between Old Church Slavonic and Old East Slavic

Old Church Slavonic and Old East Slavic are sometimes confused because their names sound similar. However, they were different languages with distinct roles and historical origins.

Old Church Slavonic was a literary language standardized in the 9th century through the missionary work of Cyril and Methodius. It was used for biblical and liturgical translations and for religious activities. It was not a language widely spoken in everyday life but developed primarily as a written language used in churches, monasteries, and educational settings.

Old East Slavic, by contrast, was an East Slavic language spoken in everyday life in Kievan Rus’ from approximately the 9th to the 13th century. It was used in many ordinary situations, including conversations in markets and communication within households. Modern Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian share Old East Slavic as a common ancestor.

The distinction between the two can therefore be summarized as follows:

• Old Church Slavonic: a written language used in religion, literature, and liturgy
• Old East Slavic: a spoken language used by the people of Kievan Rus’

Of course, the two languages did not exist entirely independently of one another. Because Old Church Slavonic continued to be used in churches, its vocabulary and expressions gradually entered Old East Slavic. Words of Old Church Slavonic origin became especially common in fields such as religion, philosophy, literature, and administration, and this influence remains visible in modern Russian.

Moreover, the Russian Orthodox Church still uses Church Slavonic, a liturgical language that developed from Old Church Slavonic. This tradition has been preserved over many centuries.

Summary

Old Church Slavonic was the earliest literary language of the Slavic world, developed in the 9th century, and it played a major role in the development of Slavic culture.

Its principal characteristics can be summarized as follows:

Learning about Old Church Slavonic is important not only for understanding Russian but also for understanding the history and culture of the entire Slavic world.

Modern Russian developed on the foundation of Old East Slavic as a spoken language while also inheriting the literary and religious traditions of Old Church Slavonic. By understanding this historical background, you can gain a deeper understanding of the Russian language.

Izumi Miyajima

Writer

I’m a writer, language enthusiast, history lover, and lifelong learner fascinated by Russia. Here, I explore the Russian language, history, and culture through clear and engaging articles.